Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years. One of the earliest defining human traits, bipedalism -- the ability to walk on two legs -- evolved over 4 million years ago.

Primates have evolved over time.

Around 65 million years ago, the very first primates emerged in North America. Eventually, they made their way to Eurasia and thrived. Some of these primates then ventured into Africa, becoming the ancestors of both modern apes and humans. Roughly 35 million years ago, the first Old World monkeys made their appearance. During the Miocene period, evidence of a hominoid called Oreopithecus was discovered in coal beds in Italy. Between 8 and 6 million years ago, chimpanzees and gorillas branched off, leading to the lineage that eventually gave rise to humans. The Australopithecus genus, which conquered the continent, played a significant role. There were numerous species within this genus, well-adapted for climbing and bearing a striking resemblance to modern monkeys. However, the Australopithecus genus only lasted for a span of 2 million years before becoming completely extinct.


The initial Homo Genus.




Many species in the genus Homo have evolved throughout the history of humankind. The earliest known species, Homo habilis, emerged less than 3 million years ago. Despite having a brain size similar to chimpanzees, Homo habilis was the first tool-using species. Interestingly, its frontal cortex, responsible for complex planning and cognitive functions, was already showing signs of development. Homo erectus, which appeared around 1.5 million years ago, was the first species to use complex tools. However, it is not the direct ancestor of modern humans. Our lineage can be traced back to Archaic Homo sapiens, who lived between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago, originating in Africa and eventually spreading out to replace other hominin species.


 


 Information About Black Hole in Hindi


Blach Holes


Most Powerful Black Holes in Universe








 


Extensive research over the years may lead us to believe that we have a comprehensive understanding of life on Earth, particularly its fundamental forms. Nevertheless, nature continues to conceal numerous mysteries, even within the realm of known species. A prime illustration of this is when researchers unveiled 71 previously unknown species across five continents and three oceans just a few years back. This serves as a reminder that there is still much to uncover when it comes to the diversity of life on our planet.

Ocean Plastic

In 2014, a group of researchers delved deep into the depths of the Marianas Trench, reaching an astonishing depth of 11,034 meters. It was during this exploration that they stumbled upon a remarkable discovery - a previously unknown species residing 6,900 meters below the ocean's surface. However, what they found was disheartening. The small crustacean they encountered had been significantly impacted by human activities, to the point where it contained traces of plastic within its body.

Among the findings, scientists came across a microfiber that bore a striking resemblance of 80% to PET, a material commonly used in the production of water bottles and various other everyday items. In light of this disconcerting revelation, the research team decided to christen the newfound species as Eurythenes plasticus, with the intention of raising awareness about the dire consequences of plastic pollution. Despite the grim situation, there remains a glimmer of hope that some individuals of this species have managed to avoid contamination, or that a reduction in plastic pollution could potentially aid in their recovery.


Recent research has revealed that what was once thought to be a single species of red panda is actually two distinct species.

 At the start of the year, it was discovered that what was once considered an endangered species actually consists of two distinct species. Scientists had long suspected this, but it wasn't until they found genetic evidence that their suspicions were confirmed. Red pandas can be found in the forests of China, India, Nepal, and Bhutan, but unfortunately, their population is dwindling each year.
Red Panda



Pandas are in need of improved protection as they have limited genetic diversity, a concern that has been highlighted by a recent discovery. The Chinese panda is distinguishable by its redder and striped fur, while the Himalayan panda has a brighter face. The reason for these differences can be traced back to the separation of the two species around 250 thousand years ago due to a river. Interestingly, red pandas are the sole species in their family, which currently consists of only two members.

 American Mammals  



In 2013, researchers stumbled upon an intriguing find - the first carnivore species to be discovered in the Americas in over three decades. This two-pound mammal, with its distinctive large eyes and brown-orange fur, calls the lush forests of Ecuador and Colombia home. Surprisingly, it held the title of the most recently discovered mammal for a brief period, until it was overshadowed by the adorable red pandas.


 The Dark Fungi

 Animals are not the only newly discovered species out there. The findings that scientists have made are just as captivating. Back in 2010, after extensive research, scientists uncovered a variety of fungi species that illuminate forests across the world. They managed to identify seven new species, which increased the count of glowing mushroom species to a total of 71. These newly discovered species emit a vibrant green-yellow glow consistently in Central (Jamaica) and South America (Brazil).







 

What is DNA?

 DNA is like a big book of information that tells the cell what to do. It's like the boss of the cell, controlling everything that happens inside. One important job it has is to tell the cell how to make proteins, which are like little workers that do different tasks. It does this by using a special code that can be turned into specific molecules that the cell needs. Now, let's find out more about how the CEO of the cell works!


The structure of the DNA



                                                             Structure of DNA
DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, might sound like a weird name, but it actually makes sense. In cells called eukaryotic cells (which are most cells that aren't bacteria), DNA takes the form of a double helix, which means it looks like a twisted ladder. This double helix is made up of two strands, and each strand is made of smaller building blocks called nucleotides. These nucleotides are connected to each other and to nucleotides on the opposite strand. The chain of each strand is made up of two important parts - phosphoric acid, which is an inorganic component, and deoxyribose, which is a type of simple sugar. And finally, deoxyribose connects to one of four nitrogenous bases.

 Nitrogenous bases are small molecules that come together to create a genetic code. In DNA, there are four different types: Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Adenine (A), and Thymine (T). We don't need to worry about their detailed structure, but it's important to know that each base can only pair with one other specific base because of how they are shaped. For example, cytosine always connects with guanine, and adenine always pairs with thymine. The type of base determines the type of nucleotide it is a part of. For instance, a nucleotide with adenine is called an adenine nucleotide. To keep things simple, each nucleotide is represented by a letter, which is the first capital letter of its name. The bonds between the bases hold the double helix shape of DNA together. The order of nucleotides on a strand is known as a sequence.


The genetic code

Nucleotides always pair up the same way, like A with T and G with C. If we know the sequence on one side, we can figure out the sequence on the other side. Nucleotides are like a code with four bases, but what does it mean? Well, proteins are made up of 20 different amino acids, and they have a complex structure that can be broken down into a sequence of amino acids.

This is where the genetic code comes in. Three nucleotides make up a codon, which represents one amino acid. Cells can decode this information to create the amino acid chain needed to make a specific protein. The genetic code chart helps us decode the code easily (each three-letter sequence represents a different amino acid, and stop codons tell the cell to stop decoding). You don't have to memorize everything; just use the chart when you need it.

                                                                  The Genetic Code

Characteristic of Genetic Code


  • The genetic code is the set of rules by which a linear sequence of nucleotides specifies the linear sequence of a polypeptide.
  • That is, they specify how the nucleotide sequence of an mRNA is translated into the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide.
  • Thus, the relationship between the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA and the amino acid sequence of the polypeptide is the genetic code.
  • The nucleotide sequence is read as triplets called codons.
Comparison of DNA and RNA

 RNA is a type of molecule that is similar to DNA but has some key differences. It is made of ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose sugar, and it contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T).

During the process of transcription, DNA strands separate slightly, and an RNA molecule is created that is compatible with one DNA strand and identical to the other.

Once the RNA molecule is properly formed, it can leave the nucleus and travel to other parts of the cell. In the next section, we will learn more about how proteins are made in the cell and how DNA replication occurs.
 

Humans have always had a deep bond with the stars. They have shaped our beliefs, power systems, scientific advancements, and even our physical selves. However, in the past few hundred years, we have grown apart from the immense cosmos surrounding us. This disconnection carries significant implications. "The Human Cosmos" delves into this voyage: from ancient cave drawings to sailors relying on stars for guidance; from monks contemplating time to Einstein's revolutionary breakthroughs. It highlights the significance of reestablishing our connection with the universe, comprehending its influence on our overall well-being, and embracing its capacity to motivate and enlighten us.
About Author



Jo Marchant is a science and history journalist. She has a BSc in genetics from Leicester University and a PhD in microbiology. She is the author of several books, including Decoding the Heavens, which explores the Antikythera mechanism, The Shadow King: The Bizarre Afterlife of King Tut's Mummy, and Cure: A Journey Into the Science of Mind Over Body (shortlisted for the Royal Society Insight Investment Science Book Prize 2016). Jo Marchant has also worked as an editor for the science journal Nature and as an opinion editor at New Scientist magazine in London. She has contributed to publications such as The Guardian and The Economist.